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Diagram of the Family Tree of Living Organisms.

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Metaphor for the relationship between species of organisms

The tree of life or universal tree of life is a metaphor, model and research tool used to explore the evolution of life and describe the relationships between organisms, both living and extinct, every bit described in a famous passage in Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859).[2]

The affinities of all the beings of the same course take sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth.

—Charles Darwin[iii]

Tree diagrams originated in the medieval era to represent genealogical relationships. Phylogenetic tree diagrams in the evolutionary sense date back to the mid-nineteenth century.

The term phylogeny for the evolutionary relationships of species through fourth dimension was coined by Ernst Haeckel, who went further than Darwin in proposing phylogenic histories of life. In contemporary usage, tree of life refers to the compilation of comprehensive phylogenetic databases rooted at the last universal common ancestor of life on Globe. Two public databases for the tree of life are TimeTree,[four] for phylogeny and divergence times, and the Open Tree of Life, for phylogeny.

Early trees in natural nomenclature [edit]

Fold-out paleontological chart of Edward Hitchcock in 'Elementary Geology' (1840)

Although tree-like diagrams have long been used to organize knowledge, and although branching diagrams known as claves ("keys") were omnipresent in eighteenth-century natural history, it appears that the primeval tree diagram of natural order was the "Arbre botanique" (Botanical Tree) of the French schoolteacher and Catholic priest Augustin Augier,[5] first published in 1801.[6] Yet, although Augier discussed his tree in distinctly genealogical terms, and although his blueprint clearly mimicked the visual conventions of a gimmicky family tree, his tree did not include whatever evolutionary or temporal aspect. Consistent with Augier's priestly vocation, the Botanical Tree showed rather the perfect lodge of nature as instituted by God at the moment of Cosmos.[seven]

In 1809, Augier's more famous compatriot Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who was acquainted with Augier'southward "Botanical Tree",[viii] included a branching diagram of animal species in his Philosophie zoologique.[nine] Unlike Augier, withal, Lamarck did not talk over his diagram in terms of a genealogy or a tree, only instead named information technology a tableau ("tabular array").[10] Lamarck believed in the transmutation of life forms, merely he did non believe in common descent; instead he believed that life developed in parallel lineages advancing from more simple to more than complex.[11]

In 1840, the American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864) published the first tree-similar paleontology nautical chart in his Simple Geology.[12] On the vertical axis are paleontological periods. Hitchcock made a separate tree for plants (left) and animals (right). The found and the animal tree are not connected at the bottom of the chart. Furthermore, each tree starts with multiple origins. Hitchcock's tree was more realistic than Darwin'due south 1859 theoretical tree (see below) because Hitchcock used real names in his trees. It is likewise truthful that Hitchcock's trees were branching trees. However, they were not evolutionary trees, because Hitchcock believed that a deity was the agent of alter. That was an important difference with Darwin.

The starting time edition of Robert Chambers' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which was published anonymously in 1844 in England, independent a tree-similar diagram in the chapter "Hypothesis of the development of the vegetable and animate being kingdoms".[13] Information technology shows a model of embryological development where fish (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) represent branches from a path leading to mammals (M). In the text this branching tree thought is tentatively applied to the history of life on globe: "there may exist branching",[14] but the branching diagram is not displayed again specifically for this purpose.[15] Nonetheless, the prototype of a branching tree could easily have inspired others to use information technology explicitly every bit a representation of the history of life on earth.

In 1858, a year earlier Darwin's Origin, the paleontologist Heinrich Georg Bronn (1800–1862) published a hypothetical tree labeled with letters.[xvi] Although not a creationist, Bronn did not propose a machinery of change.[17]

Theory [edit]

Darwin [edit]

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) used the metaphor of a "tree of life" to conceptualize his theory of evolution. In On the Origin of Species (1859) he presented an abstract diagram of a theoretical tree of life for species of an unnamed large genus (encounter figure). On the horizontal base line hypothetical species within this genus are labelled A – L and are spaced irregularly to point how distinct they are from each other, and are above broken lines at various angles suggesting that they have diverged from one or more common ancestors. On the vertical axis divisions labelled I – XIV each represent a chiliad generations. From A, diverging lines show branching descent producing new varieties, some of which become extinct, and so that after ten thousand generations descendants of A have go distinct new varieties or fifty-fifty sub-species a10, f10, and m10. Similarly, the descendants of I have diversified to become the new varieties wten and zx. The process is extrapolated for a further four thousand generations so that the descendants of A and I become fourteen new species labelled a14 to zxiv. While F has continued for 14 grand generations relatively unchanged, species B,C,D,Due east,G,H,Chiliad and 50 take gone extinct. In Darwin'due south ain words: "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the aforementioned species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera.".[xviii] This is a branching design with no names given to species, unlike the more linear tree Ernst Haeckel made years later (figure beneath) which includes the names of species and shows a more linear evolution from "lower" to "higher" species. In his summary to the section, Darwin put his concept in terms of the metaphor of the tree of life:

Folio from Darwin's notebooks effectually July 1837, showing his start sketch of an evolutionary tree, with the words "I think" at the peak

The affinities of all the beings of the same class take sometimes been represented by a groovy tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The greenish and budding twigs may correspond existing species; and those produced during each former yr may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same style as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other species in the neat boxing for life. The limbs divided into nifty branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was minor, budding twigs; and this connexion of the former and nowadays buds past ramifying branches may well stand for the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush-league, but two or three, at present grown into peachy branches, notwithstanding survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few at present accept living and modified descendants. From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and co-operative has rust-covered and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have at present no living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been found in a fossil state. Equally we hither and at that place come across a sparse straggling branch springing from a fork low downwards in a tree, and which past some chance has been favoured and is still alive on its acme, then we occasionally run across an animal similar the Ornithorhynchus or Lepidosiren, which in some minor degree connects by its affinities two big branches of life, and which has plainly been saved from fatal competition past having inhabited a protected station. As buds give rising by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, then by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.

The significant and importance of Darwin'southward employ of the tree of life metaphor take been extensively discussed past scientists and scholars. Stephen Jay Gould, for one, has argued that Darwin placed the famous passage quoted above "at a crucial spot in his text", where it marked the conclusion of his argument for natural selection, illustrating both the interconnectedness by descent of organisms as well every bit their success and failure in the history of life.[20] David Penny has written that Darwin did not use the tree of life to describe the human relationship betwixt groups of organisms, simply to suggest that, as with branches in a living tree, lineages of species competed with and supplanted one some other.[21] Petter Hellström has argued that Darwin consciously named his tree after the biblical Tree of Life, as described in Genesis, thus relating his theory to the religious tradition.[10]

Haeckel [edit]

  • Haeckel's Stammbaum der Primaten (1860s)

  • Haeckel's tree of life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)

  • The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in The Evolution of Human (1879)

Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) constructed several trees of life. His kickoff sketch (in the 1860s) of his famous tree of life shows "Pithecanthropus alalus" as the ancestor of Homo sapiens. His 1866 tree of life from Generelle Morphologie der Organismen shows iii kingdoms: Plantae, Protista and Animalia. His 1879 'Pedigree of Man' was published in The Development of Man.

Proposals for top levels [edit]

Linnaeus
1735[22] 		Haeckel
1866[23] 		Chatton
1925[24] [25] 		Copeland
1938[26] [27] 		Whittaker
1969[28] 		Woese et al.
1977[29] [30] 		Woese et al.
1990[31] 		Cavalier-Smith
1993[32] [33] [34] 		Cavalier-Smith
1998[35] [36] [37] 		Ruggiero et al.
2015[38]
— — two empires 2 empires 2 empires 2 empires three domains 3 superkingdoms 2 empires ii superkingdoms
2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms — iv kingdoms 5 kingdoms half-dozen kingdoms — eight kingdoms 6 kingdoms seven kingdoms
— Protista Prokaryota Monera Monera Eubacteria Leaner Eubacteria Bacteria Bacteria
Archaebacteria Archaea Archaebacteria Archaea
Eukaryota Protista Protista Protista Eucarya Archezoa Protozoa Protozoa
Protozoa
Chromista Chromista Chromista
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Various authors have proposed different schemes for the top level of the tree of cellular life.

Taxonomical root node Two superdomains (controversial) Two empires Three domains Five Dominiums [39] Five kingdoms Six kingdoms Eocyte hypothesis
Biota / Vitae / Life Acytota / Aphanobionta - Non-cellular life Virusobiota (Viruses, Viroids)
Prionobiota (Prions)
Cytota
cellular life 		Prokaryota / Procarya
(Monera) 		Bacteria Bacteria Monera Eubacteria Bacteria
Archaea Archaea Archaebacteria Archaea including eukaryotes
Eukaryota / Eukarya Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Run into also: Virus classification
Some authors have added a classification for non-cellular life.

Developments since 1990 [edit]

In 1990, Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis proposed a "tree of life" consisting of three lines of descent for which they introduced the term domain as the highest rank of classification. They as well suggested the terms bacteria, archaea and eukaryota for the three domains.[40]

The model of a tree is however considered valid for eukaryotic life forms. As of 2010[update], research into the earliest branches of the eukaryote tree has suggested a tree with either four[41] [42] or ii supergroups.[43] At that place does not however appear to be a consensus; in a review commodity, Roger and Simpson conclude that "with the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should go on with caution."[44]

In 2015, the first draft of the Open Tree of Life was published, in which data from nearly 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to browse and download.[45]

In 2016, a new tree of life, summarizing the development of all known life forms, was published, illustrating the latest genetic findings that the branches were mainly equanimous of bacteria. The new report incorporated over a thousand newly discovered leaner and archaea.[46] [47] [i]

Horizontal cistron transfer [edit]

The prokaryotes (the two domains of bacteria and archaea) and certain animals such as bdelloid rotifers[48] have the power to transfer genetic information between unrelated organisms through horizontal cistron transfer. Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and factor creation are a few of the processes past which genes can be transferred inside and between bacterial and archaeal species, causing variation that is non due to vertical transfer.[49] [fifty] [51] There is emerging evidence of horizontal cistron transfer within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level, so the tree of life does non explicate the full complexity of the situation in the prokaryotes.[50]

Bacteria Archaea Eucaryota Aquifex Thermotoga Cytophaga Bacteroides Bacteroides-Cytophaga Planctomyces Cyanobacteria Proteobacteria Spirochetes Gram-positive bacteria Green filantous bacteria Pyrodicticum Thermoproteus Thermococcus celer Methanococcus Methanobacterium Methanosarcina Halophiles Entamoebae Slime mold Animal Fungus Plant Ciliate Flagellate Trichomonad Microsporidia Diplomonad

A speculatively rooted tree for rRNA genes, showing the three life domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota, and linking the three branches of living organisms to the LUCA (the blackness trunk at the lesser of the tree), 2009

See as well [edit]

  • Bacterial phyla
  • Cladistics
  • Common descent
  • Coral of life
  • History of evolutionary idea
  • Holism
  • Horizontal cistron transfer
  • Last universal mutual ancestor
  • Mass extinctions
  • Classification codes
  • Phylogenetic tree
  • Symbiogenesis
  • Taxonomic rank
  • Tree of Life Web Projection

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Darwin, Charles (1859), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Option, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.), London: John Murray, ISBN978-1-4353-9386-eight
  • Darwin, Charles (1872), "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life", Nature (sixth ed.), London: John Murray, 5 (121): 318–319, Bibcode:1872Natur...5..318B, doi:10.1038/005318a0, ISBN978-1-4353-9386-8, PMC5184128, PMID 30164232, S2CID 4042779
  • Doolittle, W. F.; Bapteste, E. (2007). "Inaugural Article: Design pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (7): 2043–2049. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.2043D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610699104. PMC1892968. PMID 17261804.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life Web Project - explore complete phylogenetic tree interactively
  • Tree of Life Evolution Links species on Earth through a shared evolutionary history
  • Scientific discipline journal effect - Effect devoted to the tree of life.
  • The Tree of Life by Garrett Neske, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project: "presents an interactive tree of life that allows yous to explore the relationships between many unlike kinds of organisms by allowing you to select an organism and visualize the clade to which it belongs."
  • The Greenish Tree of Life - Hyperbolic tree University of California/Jepson Herbaria
  • NCBI's taxonomy database common tree

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biology)

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